Purpose - There is a considerable competition within the global education marketplace, as can be seen by the growing number of higher education
providers. Significant changes to information and communication
technologies (ICTs) have also supported dramatic opportunities for
distance and online education. This transformation, in combination with a growing demand for continuing professional education and strengthened demands by employers for tailored education and training, has caused significant shifts in higher education. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of three relevant trends within higher education.
The paper explores: the significant changes in ICTs and their support
for enhanced distance and online learning opportunities; the growing
demand for continuing professional management education; and the strengthened demand by employers for tailored education and training.
Design/methodology/approach - The paper reviews current literature on higher education
trends in the areas of globalisation, virtualisation and
borderlessness. The impact of these trends is specifically examined
relative to management education.
Findings - The paper discusses the implications of higher education trends on curriculum, teaching and administration in management education.
Originality/value - This paper brings together a significant amount of
information from various sources to provide a coherent resource about
management education trends and the implication of these trends on the future provision of management education.
Keywords Higher education, Globalization, Teaching, Curricula
Paper type Viewpoint
Introduction
Heightened competition, complex environmental influences and persistent
economic impacts continue to create constant change conditions in many
organisations. This turbulence frequently requires organisations to
focus on strategies for organisational survival (i.e. re-structuring,
outsourcing and downsizing). Nowhere are these forces more pronounced
than in the post-secondary education
sector, where arguments have reached a fevered pitch. Governments,
bureaucrats, university administrators and technology salespeople alike
have suggested the death of one era (that of the traditional university
sector) and the birth of another (that of the global and potentially
virtual higher education business).
The present paper examines some views about the "business of borderless education"
(BBE) drawing on wide ranging research, predominantly from the USA
(including corporate and "for profit" examples), the UK and Australia as
this is where most such research has been undertaken. The paper looks
at some major global trends and issues in higher education and identifies their implications, with specific reference to management education where appropriate.
Trends and issues in higher education
In 1997, Australia's Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) undertook an intensive examination of the rhetoric and reality of borderless education through the so-called "New Media and Borderless Education" project. Subsequent projects ("The Business of Borderless Education", 2000 and the "Business of Borderless Education:
2001 Report") considered the lessons that could be learnt in the
corporate and post-secondary sector from organisations acknowledged
internationally as delivering exemplar education
and training that satisfied all stakeholders (i.e. staff, students and
employers). While some have suggested that the initial project was aimed
at striking fear into the hearts of paranoid professors in their ivy
towers, the research in fact addressed three elements that continue to
be significant influences in higher education; namely globalisation, virtualisation and borderlessness.
Globalisation
Higher education
is competing in a global marketplace (Mazzarol and Soutar, 2001), but
globalisation has not produced a major world market. There has been a
fragmentation of the marketplace into many niche markets that are spread
across the globe. Some of those niches (MBA programs for example) are
clearly larger and potentially more profitable than others. However,
globalisation is not a guarantee of a worldwide market with billions of
people ready to purchase the goods or services of any one business or
institution. In a globalised economy there are increasing requirements
for standardised products, services and technical infrastructure, in
addition to a need for complex and sophisticated communication systems
(Gibbons, 1998). What we are seeing are new levels of global
interdependency being embedded through new trades, particularly in
skills and knowledge, trade in services and now the emergence of global
electronic commerce (DETYA, 2001).
The 1990s saw increased interest in tertiary education,
especially by adults demanding practical, relevant qualifications
delivered in a manner sensitive to their competing time and energy
demands (as has been evidenced in management education).
School leavers are now less than 20 percent of the US student
population and less than a third in Australia. The major segment of
increased learning is in the plus 25 years of age who are part-time
learners and who want to learn quickly and who are interested in career
advancement. They are often paying for their own skills upgrades and are
determined to get value for their money.
Due in
no small measure to a general reluctance on the part of governments to
fund this increasing tertiary interest, new private providers have
emerged to exploit market opportunities. This has left publicly funded
institutions to deal with less profitable or less marketable content
areas and student populations. At the same time, profitable areas are
extremely sensitive to economic realities. Weakening economic conditions
in the USA, for example, have seen a dramatic drop in demand for
graduates from one of the most profitable niche programs (the MBA).
Surveys of major business school students show that 80 to 95 percent of
business school MBA graduates had employment before graduation in 2001,
whereas this was true for only 50 to 70 percent of impending 2003
graduates (Dunham, 2003).
Virtualisation
As is clear to all, many of the dot-corns of the 1990s subsequently
turned into dot-bombs. Putting an e- before everything is no longer a
guarantee of success. While technologically based distance education has grown rapidly, predictions of the opportunities afforded to education by the Internet and associated technology have not eventuated (Cunningham et al., 2000).
There is no technology bullet to solve the problems with which education
is grappling, such as shrinking funding from the public purse, the need
to teach more with less or industry dissatisfaction with the
responsiveness of traditional educational institutions or the skills
sets of their graduates. The problem is that technology costs money and
stakeholders are looking for high-tech/high-touch solutions and these
systems are expensive to implement and to maintain. What students want
is reliable and easy infrastructure. They want full flexibility and they
want to operate on local time. When they go into their chat room they
would rather like someone on it. Students want peer interaction, they
want extensive and unmediated but they also want someone listening
(DETYA, 2001). So while they want to use multiple modes of delivery as
appropriate, they also want high calibre professionals teaching
them in the classroom (Farrell, 1999). Students like the appeal of
multimedia delivery, but many express an interest for small group
learning situations to balance the isolation that technology often
creates (Mazzarol and Soutar, 2001). Such views have also been expressed
in the corporate sector, with McDonalds and Ford interviewees
commenting on the value of individuals and teams learning together in a
real-time, real-world environment. Similarly, Executive MBA director
Regina Mitchell at the University of Otago in New Zealand observed that
"MBA students often comment that the most useful things they learned
during the MBA, they learned from each other during face-to-face
discussions" (Seligman, 2001, p. 61).
The successful implementation of technology solutions in higher education requires a careful strategic integration into administration, communication and teaching
processes. There is no pot of gold at the end of the Microsoft,
Macintosh or WebCT rainbow. Cunningham et al. (2000, p. 127) reflected
that even the US corporate university FORDSTAR, which has high-volume
international education and training commitments and sees the Internet as "a major part of the future of education
and training delivery" considered that "technical limitations
particularly bandwidth means that they are not ready to rely heavily on
this medium."
The borderlessness of borderless education
In the mid-1990s, borderless education
was predominantly concerned with geographic boundaries and the
implications of a worldwide marketplace. Subsequently, there has been an
increasing fragmentation of the sector across broader boundaries.
Educational institutions are no longer in the higher education business as much as they are in a "post-secondary education
market." This has increased the importance of branding within this
borderless space as geographic and sectoral boundaries are no longer as
important (Currie and Newson, 1998). What matters are the name, the
brand, the reputation and the quality (Mazzarol and Soutar, 2001). The
solutions to surviving in this space are increasingly partnerships and
alliances. Stakeholders (employers, students, governments) want
integrated solutions to their problems and, if public institutions
cannot deliver, private organisations will step into areas with profit
potential and capitalise (Debats and Ward, 1998, Cunningham et al.,
2000).
In response to the rapid increase in the online delivery of education and training by traditional and non-traditional providers, there has been no shortage of predictions that education
will become a distanced activity (Cunningham et al., 2000). The
GartnerGroup (1999), however, listed five constraints to such an
outcome, namely:
(1) the current tenure and salaries structure;
(2) inadequate technical support;
(3) fears of change by staff and students;
(4) intellectual property challenges; and
(5) leadership problems.
Early signs of borderless education
are evident in fee-based training that produces credentials with global
currency. Despite many organisations referring to their global reach,
however, an examination suggests the numbers of international students
at a variety of institutions are not substantial (Ramsden, 1998). The
list below suggests some of the reasons why this is so (Cunningham et
al, 1998):
(1) Practical issues:
* profitability and availability of markets;
* commercial need to focus on "core business" and selected markets;
* strength of local recognition of existing institutions;
* difficulties in working across language and time barriers;
* difference in student access to it infrastructure;
* cultural differences; and
* availability of suitably skilled staff.
(2) Pedagogical issues:
* quality of distance or IT mediated education without strong local support;
* need for local relevance; and
* cultural difference in learning styles.
(3) Policy issues:
* local accreditation and consumer protection requirements; and
* difference in public funding policy.
(4) Personal issues: local variation in demand (e.g. for modularized courses or for convenience/personal tailoring.
The list below suggests some of the value drivers that will help to ensure success in the new environment (Cutler, 2001):
* soundness of the internationalisation strategy;
* the e-sawy characteristics of the business models being used;
* attention to people assets;
* value of customers (main driver of shareholder value in most environments is keeping your customer base;
* importance of intellectual property (intellectual capital as an asset); and
* quality of investors and business partners.
Mazzarol et al. (2003, p. 90) noted that international education has predominantly taken three forms, namely:
(1) Students travel to a host nation to study at a selected institution.
(2) An education
institution develops an alliance or coalition and establishing a
presence in international markets through "twinning" programs (Smart,
1988). Twinned programs make services accessible, overcome capacity
problems and can enhance an educational institution's competitive
advantage.
(3) Branch campuses are set up in
foreign markets that often integrate the delivery of traditional and
"on-line" courses to students in these markets.
A
number of US, Australian and UK universities have established offshore
campuses and it is apparent that quality assurance ranks high among the
various issues that have to be addressed when such decisions are made.
While offshore quality assurance is possible with good management,
strong entry standards and sufficient investment, there are examples of
failures that illustrate the difficulties involved (Tysome, 1998).
Effective collaboration and partnerships are strategic imperatives for
any university that aspires to be world class in the global education marketplace.
Implications for higher education
These three trends will have far-reaching effects in many education areas. Here, their impacts in three key areas (curriculum, teaching and administration) are explored.
Curriculum
Given the work and domestic commitments of most adults and the "time
poverty" many feel, it is not surprising that locational convenience,
time scheduling and the length of a study program, are important to
adult students. An increasing number of students undertake extensive
paid work alongside their university study. These time-poor and
mstrumentally-oriented learners want a "stripped-down version of higher education" (Levine, 1999, p. 10). However, students are not likely to be attracted by an unstructured "smorgasbord" of on-line subjects.
Laura Noone, the Provost at University of Phoenix, observed that:
Contrary to popular belief, adults don't exclusively want flexibility,
they want convenience. So they don't necessarily want to come in and
take the entire panoply of 12 courses in whatever sequence. They want
you to structure it in such a way that it is convenient and easy for
them to attain (Cunningham et al., 2000, p. 128).
Higher education
must effectively sequence units in a way that matches student
interests, while supporting the rigor and requirements of employers.
Many businesses and employers are asking (DETYA, 2001):
* What skills do we need?
* Where do we get them?
* How do we package them?
* Do we need a learning manager?
Traditionally, higher education
has tried to provide a coherent and thoughtful integration of
knowledge, skills and attitudes, with the dual aims of imparting a
specialist understanding of a discipline area and developing an
individual to his or her full potential.
The
increasing use of credit transfers from work training programs and
competency based institutions may disrupt curriculum coherence, with a
disjunction between practice-based knowledge and theoretical knowledge
and a questioning of the skills that can be attributed to a graduate
from a particular university. Many commentators have expressed concern
that the primary mission of the university has been diluted and
distorted as a result of commercial decisions taken to broaden curricula
(Daniel, 1999). These critical voices are not limited to traditional
arts courses as they can be heard even in business programs.
Mangan (2003, p. A12) reports that, while critics complain that "some
business schools are compromising their academic priorities and becoming
more like trade schools", others argue that graduate business programs
are not on the same page as business, with cumbersome academic planning
procedures, inflexible course requirements and out-of-date faculty
combining to deliver an out of touch curriculum. "While today's
businesses operate in Internet time, they say, programs training future
business leaders are often a decade behind" (Mangan, 2003, p. A12). She
suggests that the solution for many business schools is to free up the
curriculum and look at niche-orientated MBAs:
Business schools are redesigning their curriculums, forging closer ties
with businesses and giving students more freedom to customize their
degrees. MBA programs are trying not only to give their students an edge
in a brutal job market, but also to distinguish themselves from their
competitors (Mangan, 2003, p. A13).
Teaching
Globalisation and virtualisation have also fragmented academics' traditional tertiary teaching role. Recent developments in higher education
have challenged traditional views as to "how knowledge is constituted
and comprehended" (Bêcher, 1989). One result is the casualisation of the
academic workforce, with many academic staff now employed in this way
(Cunningham et al, 2000). While the substantial number of adjunct teaching staff in corporate and for-profit institutions was an area of difference to traditional higher education
institutions, the increasing casualisation of the traditional
university workforce is making this difference less apparent (Ryan and
Stedman 2001). Those committed to a traditional view of the higher education
institution as a supplier of theoretical understanding beyond practice
and skills would argue that a balance towards the employment of
full-time academic theory staff gives the university an "edge" in its
currency and relevance.
For the individual staff member, part time teaching
can be soul destroying or challenging and stimulating. The full-time
practitioner staff employed as part time teachers in many
for-profit/private institutions are often motivated by the love of teaching,
ego or, less frequently, extrinsic rewards, such as additional income
(Cunningham et al., 2000). They are generally earning above average
salaries in their "day" jobs and see teaching
as a form of community service. For professional teachers,
casualisation results in "freeway fliers" or "road scholars" in the
sense that "they go from institution to institution trying to put
together enough of a teaching
living" (Cunningham et al., 2000, p. 119). The fundamental problem for
traditional institutions is that, as the proportion of casual teaching staff increases, they often find the high-profile, well-credentialed industry-based adjunct teaching staff outrank their own teaching staff in professional experience and credibility. A further challenge for teaching
staff is the pressure generated from diverse motivations for learning,
with many students driven to the classroom as a result of generous
tuition relief from employers (particularly in management courses) and
an emphasis on credentialism (Ryan and Stedman, 2001). Indeed:
The influx of students and the move to student centred learning has
placed in juxtaposition the values of those academics who see education as being about critical thinking and disciplinary study, and the values of students, many of whom see university education
as being about professional training and the acquisition of a
credential which will assist their chances of career advancement
(Coaldrake and Stedman, 1998, p. 3).
The focus on
the bottom line requirements of the corporation (which the university
is now to serve), rather than the personal expectation of the students
in a broad educational experience, creates discomfort for many
traditional teachers (Cunningham et al, 2000). Further, maintaining
program integrity as worthwhile in its own right, rather than as a means
to an end, creates tension between teachers and the corporations on
which they are becoming increasingly reliant for income. Corporate
universities have endeavoured to distinguish their teaching
resources in two ways. First, instructional staff have been required to
receive teacher training (not necessarily a requirement at traditional
tertiary institutions) and, second, there has been no expectation that
instructors will be involved in community service or research
responsibilities (Ryan and Stedman, 2001).
New
technologies have also had a significant impact on the changing roles of
tertiary teachers. Institutions that have introduced broad and
sophisticated technology solutions (often using external expertise) have
found their teaching
practices have been permanently changed, with staff moving from
developing, producing, delivering and assessing knowledge roles to roles
that requires more support staff assistance, higher facilitation and
less content-focus (McConnell, 1999). Many academics are not comfortable
in a "team-based" environment. They lose their autonomy, they no longer
have that absolute control over the content that is to be delivered
(DETYA, 2001) The future of teaching
may also see a revision to the "teacher-student relationship" as
increasingly large classes depersonalise the relationship and ICT
distances it:
So who owns the IP? The
institution, because the work was done at the behest of the institution
during the time of the staff member paid for by the institution? Of the
staff member, because it was their brain, their IP; because they are the
content provider and they brought it together? Most staff will accept
that if the course was to be delivered by them or their colleagues in
that institution for the students of that institution then the
institution should have the IP. But what about the institution that
takes that IP, chops it up, repackages it and on sells it to somebody
else? Whose IP is it then? Staff members get very jumpy at the thought
that it is their intellectual property rebadged, redelivered and they
lost it. There is a real sense of loss and that can create its own
discussions (DETYA, 2001, p. 65).
In higher education,
ICT-based delivery models seem likely to supplement, rather than
replace, the campus model. It is unlikely that such media will remove
the need for face-to-face interaction, particularly in high quality teaching
environments where "soft" service is the key. Indeed, "we don't yet
know whether individuals will seek online MBA's" (Cox, cited in Ryan and
Stedman, 2001, p. 10). Most education
providers expect to use a combination of delivery mechanisms to mix
classroom experience with online program availability (Cunningham et
al., 2000). Nevertheless, to remain internationally competitive
universities must embrace the opportunities interactive media techniques
offer, while withstanding the pull to over-capitalise on
technology-based solutions.
A dministration
The increase of international programs within higher education,
particularly those that rely on local alliances and coalitions, have
had a profound impact on academic staff who must make a large time
commitment in regular ongoing visits to international markets. The
"third wave" emphasises the development of branch campuses (with
effective local staff) provides a new educational solution. These
branches, however, require significant investment (in financial and
human resources) and it is unclear if they will provide a real return on
this investment. Educational institutions need to revise administrative
procedures to support branch campus operations effectively, including
HR policies that permit foreign campus staff to move freely into their
domestic faculty. However, there is often considerable resistance to
such change, especially in more traditional institutions, which reduces
the flexibility that is needed. Information technology has strengthened
these processes and it is clear that institutions that develop new
supportive administrative systems are more likely to succeed (Mazzarol
and Soutar, 2001).
Conclusions
The present paper outlined some significant trends that are impacting on international education and has outlined their implications for curriculum, teaching
and administration. Despite the sectoral challenges of increased
competition, decreased public funding and the like, there are clear
opportunities for educational institutions that understand their own
strengths and the markets within which they operate. What is clear is
that educational institutions are operating in very different markets
than they did even a decade ago and that their overall success or
failure is likely to be determined by how well they make the transition
from local to regional to global players, while not losing sight of
their educational objectives and their roles as developers and
disseminators of knowledge and wisdom.
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Coaldrake, P. and Stedman, L. (1998), On the Brink, University of Queensland Press, St Lucia.
Cunningham, S., Ryan, Y., Stedman, L., Tapsall, S., Bagdon, K., Flew, T. and Coaldrake, P. (1998), New Media and Borderless Education: Review of the Convergence between Global Media Networks and Higher Education Provision, AGPS, Canberra.
Cunningham, S., Ryan, Y., Stedman, L., Tapsall, S., Bagdon, K., Flew, T. and Coaldrake, P. (2000), The Business of Borderless Education, DETYA, Canberra.
Currie, J. and Newson, J. (1998), Universities and Globalisation: Critical Perspectives, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Cutler, T. (2001), "Forces for change in the 21st century", speech given at the Online Learning Conference, Griffith University, Brisbane, 15 February.
Daniel, J. (1999), "Distance learning in the era of networks", The ACU Bulletin of Current Documentation, Vol. 138, April, pp. 7-10.
Debats, D. and Ward, A. (1998), Degrees of Difference: Reshaping the University in Australia and the United States, Australian Centre for American Studies, University of Sydney, Sydney.
Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs (DETYA) (2001), Online Learning in a Borderless Market: Proceedings of a Conference Held 15-16 February 2001 at Griffith University Gold Coast Campus, Evaluations and Investigations Program, Canberra.
Dunham, M. (2003), "Career journal: MBAs of '03 face an array of closed doors", Watt Street Journal, New York, NY, May 6, p. B1.
Farrell, G. (1999), The Development of Virtual Education: A Global Perspective, Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver.
GartnerGroup (1999), IT Management Scenario: Navigating Uncertainty, RAS Services, Brisbane.
Gibbons, M. (1998), "A commonwealth perspective on the globalisation of higher education", in Scott, P. (Ed.), The Globalization of Higher Education, Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University Press, Buckingham, pp. 70-87.
Levine, A. (1999), "Comment", AAHE Bulletin, Vol. 50 No. 9, p. 10.
McConnell, K. (1999), "Distance education: where are we now?", Via Satellite, September, pp. 16-22.
Mangan, K. (2003), "The new MBA: business school professors shift programs to emphasize relevance and flexibility", Chronicle of Higher Education, April 25, pp. A12-A13.
Mazzarol, T. and Soutar, G. (2001), The Global Market for Higher Education: Sustainabk Competitive Strategies for the New Millennium, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.
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Ramsden, P. (1998), Learning to Lead in Higher Education, Routledge, London.
Ryan, Y. and Stedman, L. (2001), The Business of Borderless Education: A 2001 Update, DEST, Canberra.
Seligman, M. (2001), "MBAs get competitive", New Zealand Management, June, pp. 59-64.
Smart, D. (1988), "Recruitment and financing of candidates to study overseas: the case of Malaysia and its implications for Australia", Australian Universities Review, Vol. 2, pp. 26-30.
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